Disturbed Land Restoration

Program Guidance

General Restoration Step

Outlined below are the most common elements in restoration projects that include a physical component. Selection of appropriate methods and tools depends on the scale and nature of the disturbance.

Step 1: Inventory Sites and Select Reference Sites or Conditions

A disturbed lands restoration inventory includes the identification of the disturbed sites, assessments of the current condition of the sites, and selection of reference sites or conditions (naturally functioning areas or conditions used as models for restoration design). The purpose of the inventory is to gather enough information to create an understanding of the type, magnitude, and length of disturbances that affected, or continues to affect, the landscape and the degree to which the natural features and processes are affected. Inventory information allows managers to rank disturbed sites for restoration, develop preliminary alternatives for restoration, and estimate the costs to restore sites for budgetary purposes, including competing for project funds. Inventory information also can guide further sampling and monitoring.

Inventory and assessment of sites

Some or all of the following details should be included in the inventory:

• a site map, which should include all geomorphic features, hydrologic patterns, facilities, structures, existing uses, access routes, and other important details
• current and historic topographic, geologic, soil, and vegetation maps and aerial photographs to illustrate the degree and scope of the disturbance and the nature of the surrounding undisturbed topography
• descriptions of the historic uses of the site
• natural disturbance history (fires, floods, windstorms, etc)
• the legal history of the site
• species lists and community descriptions
• critical habitat for threatened and endangered species
• an evaluation of the potential recovery of damaged resources with and without restoration work; alternatively, an evaluation of potential recovery once the degrading agent is removed or discontinued
• a description of the existing and potential effects of the site on park resources as evidenced by groundwater or surface-water contamination, erosion, compaction, sedimentation, nonnative plant invasions, and other changes in habitat, such as species composition changes, altered vegetative structure, or decreased primary productivity
• samples of water and soil conditions, if appropriate
• photo points and photographs of the current condition of the site
• a current conceptual ecological model for the site.

The following factors should be considered when designing the inventory:

• The type of decisions that will be made with the collected data.
• Cumulative impacts: The inventory should record and evaluate past, ongoing, and future cumulative impacts on resources and site-specific impacts from disturbed sites
• Future utility: Consider that the inventory may be used with other inventories, that it may be used by others in the future, and that it should be compatible with existing inventory systems for comparison of the inventoried characteristics with numerous other landscape and ecosystem parameters.

Selection of reference sites and conditions

An identification of reference sites or conditions is important for several reasons. Reference site identification is essential for understanding the disturbances that have occurred to the system, and the reference site or conditions provide a model on which restoration is based. Reference sites and conditions must be carefully selected because they influence many stages of the restoration process.

Temporal aspects of succession and non-determinant trajectories of succession in ecological communities, must be recognized in selection of a reference site and, in fact, suitable reference sites for the physical aspects of a restoration project may be different from the reference sites for the biological aspects of that project. For example, reference sites or conditions for the physical aspects of restoration projects often represent pre-disturbance or undisturbed adjacent conditions (land areas that share similar physical characteristics with the disturbed area but have not been significantly disturbed). The pre-disturbance conditions may be determined from the historic journals and records of pioneers and early land surveyors who described the state of the land soon after European settlement, from historic photographs (from several periods, if available, and including aerial photography), and from visual inspections of the site and undisturbed areas.

Reference sites or conditions for vegetation and other biological aspects of a restoration project, on the other hand, may have been recently disturbed. In other words, these sites are not necessarily areas with climax or mature vegetation. For example, a site that was recently disturbed naturally by flood or fire and is recovering naturally may be an appropriate reference site, since such sites or conditions can serve as models for planting, revegetation, and re-introduction of other essential biota (e.g., arthropods) to restore ecosystem processes and functions. An understanding of native vegetation dynamics incorporated into an ecological model for the site will greatly enhance the decision on a reference site or condition for biological aspects of the project. The project manager may encounter a particular successional stage of plant community, and wish to restore it to a designated "climax" stage. Anthropogenic changes to natural systems may result in undesired vegetative patterns. Reintroduction of natural processes, such as fire or flooding, may not necessarily restore a desired vegetative plant community. In such cases, some other action must first be implemented before natural systems and processes can be restored.

Step 2. Rank Sites

Criteria for ranking may include historical, current, and potential impacts; the resources at risk and their value; the potential for restorative success; current and future visitor use; the relative effect of restoration on the integrity or recovery of the larger natural system; legal or ownership constraints; safety issues; and cost. NPS laws, management policies, and guidelines, and the park’s enabling legislation should also guide the ranking process.

Step 3. Establish Goal and Objectives

In general, the NPS goal for disturbed lands is to restore natural systems and processes. However, the physical environment has often changed so much that restoration of pre-disturbance conditions is not possible. The NPS goal then becomes the design of new landforms that blend and function with the surrounding landscape and sustain desired habitats. Likewise, a pre-disturbance knowledge of the full suite of species and communities rarely exists. In this case, appropriate habitats should be designed to address species components compatible to surrounding natural areas, important structural characteristics within the habitat, and landscape patterns. This reflects issues of animal movement across habitat boundaries, and seed dispersal. In rare cases, a park may want to transform a disturbed site to something other than wildland, such as a parking lot, cultural resource preservation area, or critical habitat. If so, the park's goal should be to minimize the disturbed area, the disruption of natural processes, and the impacts to on-site or off-site resources.The purpose of setting objectives is to define measures by which the success of the goal, which is the establishment of the planned condition, can be measured (see definition of "restored," above). If the objectives are not met, additional restoration work should be considered. The time frame of desired or acceptable recovery can be a key factor in defining objectives. Examples of objectives are: (1) in 5 years, plant diversity and density will be at 80% of target conditions, (2) in 10 years, the abundance of nonnative species will be less than 5%, and (3) in 10 years, average soil infiltration rates will exceed 10"/hour. Step 4. Develop Preliminary Restoration Alternatives

Preliminary restoration alternatives should be developed at this stage. Each alternative should comply with NPS policies and support the restoration goal and objectives. Each alternative would expedite recovery of the site, but would achieve the goal and objectives in different time frames and by different types of active management/purposeful manipulation. Examples of various alternatives are:

• restoration of stable geomorphic configurations, improvement of soil characteristics, and revegetation with native species
• restoration of stable geomorphic configurations, improvement of soil characteristics, and natural recolonization of plants
• revegetation with native species without restoration of physical characteristics of landscape
• restoration of the site by completing work in smaller sub-areas as funding and staff become available
• natural recovery
• coordination with adjacent agencies, landowners, and other partners to resolve off-site problems that impair resources in a park

Often, an understanding of the degree of degradation drives these options. A subset of alternatives will include use of machinery v. hand-tools, source of plant materials (seeds v. seedlings), and mulching v. temporary cover crops.

Step 5. Undertake Compliance and Select an Alternative

The approval and conduct of restoration projects must be in compliance with statutes, regulations, executive orders, NPS Management Policies, and management documents. The number of compliance requirements that a given restoration project may trigger can be extensive. To help determine which requirements have been triggered and how to most efficiently and effectively comply with them, project managers are encouraged to contact NPS specialists in the park, regional offices, system support offices, and the Natural Resource Program Center. Below is a brief summary of the three key compliance requirements. Foremost, proponents of restoration projects must comply with the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) to evaluate whether the project is a major federal action, and, if so, whether it has significant effects on the human environment. For most NPS restoration projects, an environmental assessment (EA) fulfills this responsibility; thus, most parks do not have to prepare an environmental impact statement (EIS). The use of a categorical exclusion to comply with NEPA will be the exception not the rule for restoration work. Parks with numerous disturbed sites should consider writing a parkwide EA or EIS. DO 12 , Handbook 12, and the section entitled Environmental Compliance in this Reference Manual should be consulted for guidance on writing NEPA documents.As part of the NEPA analysis, a park will need to make a written finding as to whether a restoration project might inadvertently result in impairment to park resources and values. If impairment may result, the project may not go forward. For further guidance on the need to make a finding regarding impairment, see Chapter 1 of NPS Management Policies and DO 12. e. Also, contact the NPS Office of Policy in Washington, D.C., and the Environmental Quality Division within the Natural Resource Program Center.In addition to NEPA compliance, most restoration projects also will need to comply with the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) § 106 consultation process. Section 106 and its implementing regulations at 36 CFR Part 800 do not apply to all cultural and historic resources at or near a potential restoration site. Only the presence of historic properties on or eligible for the National Register of Historic Places triggers the 106 process. Furthermore, compliance with Section 106 and Part 800 does not require agencies to save historic properties. Instead, these provisions require parks to undergo the consultation process in order to evaluate fully the effects of proposed actions, such as proposed restoration work, on historic properties.Once a park consults fully with the appropriate parties, including NPS cultural resource staff, state historic preservation officers, tribal historic preservation officers, other interested groups, and the public, the Section 106 process is completed and the park should proceed with the restoration project. As a result of information obtained during consultation, however, the park may decide to mitigate the damage to historic properties that will be caused by the restoration project. Mitigation to historic properties may include protection of certain historic features, documentation, curation, research, interpretation, education, recordation, or other courses of action. Restoration projects may also be affected by other laws and guidance. For a list of these other laws and guidance, see Appendix A of this Reference Manual. In addition, for assistance in determining which requirements are applicable to a given project, contact your compliance specialists in the park, regional offices, system support offices, and the Natural Resource Program Center. After complying with all the laws and policies triggered by the project, the park should select the alternative that best balances the competing considerations including effectiveness, the desired time of recovery, the environmental impacts, the available and potential staff, the available and potential funding, and relevant compliance efforts. The potential for restorative success, immediacy, and the degree of disturbance may also dictate the decision to restore, or only reclaim, revegetate, or stabilize a site.The park may adopt a combination of alternatives for experimental management, for adaptive management, or for restoration conducted in phases over a long period. For example, a park could restore three comparable sites in different ways such as by natural recolonization, by treatment to accelerate natural recolonization (such as burning in a fire-adapted ecosystem), and by revegetation.

Step 6. Develop the Project Plan

The project plan is based on the selected alternative(s) and details the discrete tasks to achieve the restoration goal and objectives. The project plan ("work plan") is used to develop technical specifications, plan sheets, and material specifications for contracts; to otherwise provide clear direction for implementation of the restoration (in a non-contract situation); and to procure project funding. (See Steps 7 and 8 below concerning finalizing and implementing the plan).

First, the project plan should clearly articulate the goals of the project and how these goals will be assessed. Then, discrete project tasks must be identified. Usually, tasks are defined by type of activity and in chronological sequence. After the tasks are identified, planners should:

• define the materials, equipment, and personnel that are required to complete the task;
• describe each task in detail sufficient for the method of implementation (e.g., contract, park staff, or volunteers), including specifications such as grade, volume, area, density, material, depth, etc.;
• determine the time required to complete the task; and
• identify the point in the project sequence when work on a specific task can begin and when work must be completed to avoid delay in initiating subsequent tasks.

In addition to written task descriptions, the plan should contain well-designed maps and technical drawings that show site-specific requirements and details that are difficult to describe. Mapping is commonly done planimetrically using standard survey techniques, enlarged aerial photographs, and topographic maps. GIS methods often augment modern mapping techniques. If needed, technical drawings (e.g., cross-sections) should be prepared to detail design specifications for work localities, including grades, depths, material handling, amendments, and other site-specific tasks or treatments.

Typical project tasks

Restoration that includes physical treatment generally involves some or all of the following regardless of whether the restoration is done by heavy equipment or by hand: (1) site preparation, (2) earthmoving, (3) soil treatment, (4) control of surface erosion, (5) reestablishment of native vegetation, (6) final closure, and (7) monitoring and maintenance. These tasks are explained below to describe the typical considerations in the plan and design of physical restoration. A design may require the collection of additional data beyond what is gathered during the assessment and alternative development process. Strategies for additional data collection should be well thought out, so that the data collection contributes to restoration design and implementation.

Detailed information on design criteria for a full range of restoration types is beyond the scope of this document. If warranted by site-specific conditions, specialists should be consulted.

1. Site preparation

Site preparation consists of all activities before the primary restoration work, including stream corridor protection, habitat protection, historic feature protection, and removal of debris, structures, and toxic substances. To plan for site preparation, it may be necessary to:

• develop a stormwater protection plan;
• develop a mitigation plan for sensitive, threatened, or endangered species;
• develop a mitigation plan for historic features that were identified during the NHPA § 106 process (this may require photographing the features before they are removed, moving the features, or working around the features); and
• plan to remove debris, structures, and toxic substances or mitigate on-site in accordance with the requirements of relevant statutes including CERCLA. Removed substances must be disposed in an appropriate landfill. On-site mitigation includes treatment (neutralization), burial, and capping in a location away from groundwater and topsoils.
• Collection of seed, propagation, and planning for transport and planting

2. Earthmoving

The scale and type of a disturbance and its effects influence the selection of appropriate tools (e.g., motorized versus non-motorized) for earthmoving. (See discussion about appropriate tools in the wilderness section, below.) The goals of earthmoving in restoration are to replicate natural landscape characteristics on a macro- and micro-scale; uncover buried landforms such as stream channels, floodplains, and soil profiles; and create land surfaces and features that blend into and function with the surrounding undisturbed landscape if replicating the natural landscape is not possible.

The following issues may need to be considered while planning the earthmoving phase.

• protecting waterways from stormwater with appropriate erosion control, such as silt fencing and temporary settling ponds
• protecting existing vegetation (especially root zones) if necessary
• stockpiling vegetation that is to be salvaged, large organic debris, and topsoil out of the way of heavy equipment operation; protection of topsoil from erosion and loss of biologic activity (particularly soil microorganisms)
• decompacting land surfaces as needed
• balancing cuts and fills or importing or exporting materials to achieve the desired landforms and functions
• facilitating plant growth by uncovering buried topsoil and ensuring it remains on the surface
• providing natural water-flow courses by uncovering buried streambed armor and side bank soils and restoring natural stream channels and gradients
• importing materials that are appropriate to the site, i.e., found locally in similar settings
• heterogeneity of the desired condition (not a smooth surface which might normally be required of a machine operator)

Additional data needs for planning earthmoving activities may include the following.

• The following information should be collected:
• geomorphic data, including flood recurrences, floodplain locations (before and after disturbance), drainage patterns, erosion and sedimentation sources and rates, landform analysis, and slope stability analysis
• surface and groundwater quantity and quality data, including information on low flows, peak flows, timing of flows, water table fluctuations, groundwater flow patterns, alkalinity, pH, nutrients, contaminant concentrations (e.g., metals), turbidity, conductivity, and temperature
• bedrock geology data, which influences the chemistry of soils and waters, ground and surface water flow styles, climate, and topography
• climatic data,including precipitation, expected temperature range, snowpack, and microclimate data (e.g., slope aspect, roughness)
• Volumetric surveys should be conducted for all areas within the project site that will be excavated, transported, filled, and shaped. Surveys should be extended beyond the boundary of the disturbed area to ensure that the restored grades blend with surrounding undisturbed areas. Critical survey locations should be documented so that they can be revisited after excavation to quantify the actual material that was excavated and moved for contract payment purposes.
• All areas should be identified where plant materials, soils, large debris, or other habitat elements may be salvaged, including the location of temporary storage and handling areas.

3. Soil treatment

If soil data indicate that soil amendment or replacement is necessary, the earthmoving design should incorporate the delivery and mixing of necessary materials into the major earthmoving work. Some potential amendments include fertilizer, mulch, sand, clay, or lime. Unless constrained by the need to protect roots of existing vegetation, soil depths should be determined based on the root depths of the plants slated for revegetation, particularly where soil will be placed over toxic materials (e.g., mine spoils), bedrock, or clay. A soil scientist familiar with NPS restoration policies should be consulted at this point. (Also see the Soil Resources Management in this Reference Manual).

Additional data needs for soil treatment planning are:

• soil data, including profile descriptions, particle-size analysis, bulk density, pH, organic matter, plant-available macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), micronutrients, cation exchange capacity, conductivity of soil solutions, and metal concentrations, patchiness, buried horizons, moisture characteristics, etc.; and
• geomorphic data (see additional data needs for earthmoving, above).

4. Control of surface erosion

Freshly restored sites may initially be vulnerable to accelerated surface erosion by water or wind. On some sites, potential surface erosion may need to be controlled until the soils settle and native vegetation reestablishes. On other sites, the need for temporary, artificial, surface erosion controls can be minimized by recreating the surface details that exist at the reference sites. Some surface details that minimize erosion naturally include surface roughness and irregularity, rocks and boulders, logs, branches, twigs, leaves, needles, and duff. Reestablishing these factors at freshly restored sites typically provides temporary control of surface erosion and restores the fine structural elements necessary to ecosystem recovery.

Various options of temporary erosion control include seeding to establish temporary vegetation, seeding with irrigation, seeding and mulch, mulch alone, erosion-control blankets, netting, and silt fences. The plan should reflect consideration of:

• the most valued resource on the site that could be lost to erosion what on or near the site could be harmed by sedimentation the natural processes that could accelerate erosion the duration between application of a treatment and control of erosion the extent to which a treatment inhibits reestablishment of native vegetation applicable regulatory requirements
• costs and benefits of various erosion control options

Depending on objectives, an erosion control expert and a plant ecologist should be consulted to determine appropriate treatments or combinations of treatments and their advantages and disadvantages. Additional data needs for planning erosion control are:

• geomorphic data (additional data needs for earthmoving, above)soils data (see additional data needs for soil treatments, above)
• list of plants prescribed for use and installation scheme

5. Reestablishment of native vegetation Physical site preparation is a prerequisite to successful reestablishment of native vegetation. Timely reestablishment commonly depends also on specific biological factors. Depending on the environment, native plants may reestablish themselves on their own, may require only propagule reintroduction, or may require additional manipulation. The estimated time to recovery, the likelihood of natural colonization, symbiont inoculation, succession, competition from nonnative plants, stress from herbivory and other animal activities, and potential soil erosion all help determine the appropriate revegetation prescription .Several revegetation methods may be employed simultaneously in one restoration plan. The methods may be passive or active. Passive methods achieve results within the plan’s timetable without intervention (e.g., nearby native plants dispersing seeds that germinate and establish in a project site). Passive methods are preferable, if effective, because they leave natural processes (dispersal and selection) intact. Proximity to a seed source, including the soil seed bank, should be evaluated. Likewise, proximity to sources of nonnative and invasive plants should be evaluated. However, a physically restored site may not revegetate (become biologically restored) without intervention. Active methods should replace any ineffective passive methods. Typical active methods include seeding, biological inoculation, planting, and control of competing nonnative species. A plant ecologist can provide advice on ecological requirements and selection of methods appropriate for particular plant species and vegetation types.In active revegetation, the collected native seed and planting stock must be genetically appropriate and compatible with native plants in adjacent and nearby areas. All plant material should be collected from reference sites or areas with reference conditions that are located as near to the project site as practicable. In addition, the collection should cover an area at least as large as the area to be restored, in order to capture sufficient genetic variability. Collecting should never biologically degrade a source site. If material is insufficient, it can be augmented by a propagator or the collection area can be expanded.In wetland and riparian areas, the relationships between the desired vegetation communities and hydrologic characteristics (flood regime and water table fluctuations) must be determined to reproduce the desired habitats. The assumption that the faunal communities will colonize a site after the vegetative communities are restored does not always hold true because (1) the plants and animals often have symbiotic relations and cannot survive unless both species are present and (2) extirpated faunal populations may not be able to recover naturally. Site-specific language in contracts can be used to ensure that revegetative goals are met. Some examples are (1) a designated distance from the restored area where native plants or seeds can be collected; (2) certified weed-free plant material (3) destruction of existing invasive plant material where the plant material contains nonnative or native invasive plant stock or materials; (4) certified weed-free fill or mulch; and (5) cleaning soil and plant material from equipment before entrance into the park. Because potential problems and biological distances vary among National Park System units, the specifics of the contract language must be developed locally.

Many sources of technical assistance such as the Natural Resources Conservation Service, native plant nurseries, native plant societies, university extensions, and The Nature Conservancy are available. The Plant Conservation Alliance (www.nps.gov/plants) maintains a white paper on native plant projects that should be used in conjunction with this section, and also provides other useful resources.

Additional data needs for planning vegetation reestablishment are:

• vegetative and faunal communities, including species composition, density, frequency, and structure quality of soil for the establishment of plant material (see Soil Treatment, below)threatened and endangered species, including species that are currently using the disturbed area and that may use the disturbed area after restoration invasive species, including species that currently inhabit the site and those that may invade the site after restoration indicator and keystone species and critical interspecific interactions that are vital to the long-term sustainability of the plant community, including mycorrhizal and nitrogen-fixing symbionts, pollinators, seed dispersers, decomposers, earthworms, and predators that control plant herbivores, etc.
• facilitators, such as non-mycorrhizal nurse plants for mycorrhizal-obligate plants, and shade plants for shade tolerant species, that should be installed in appropriate sequence

6. Final closure Restoration plans should address closing, decompacting, or removing equipment access roads; removing stormwater detention devices; distributing large organics over the disturbed areas; installing signs (interpretive or safety); and removing waterway diversions. 7. Monitoring and maintenance Restoration plans should include monitoring to determine whether goals were reached and objectives met and to assist future restoration efforts. Monitoring may also indicate that site maintenance or further restoration work is required, such as erosion control, planting, soil amending, or in extreme cases the additional restoration of landforms or processes. Monitoring plans should be based on the information needed in the years following the restoration work. Information/data needs within five years of the restoration work may differ from those ten and twenty years following restoration. In addition, restoration successes and failures may not be apparent for many years after the restoration, especially after chemical mitigation (e.g., in abandoned mine restorations). Lastly, monitoring should be designed to distinguish natural systems variability from change attributable to restoration. Therefore, reference areas should be monitored along with the restoration project area. Photographs of the project site should be taken before, during, and after, restoration from established locations to track restoration progress over many years. Photographs are also useful for monitoring, interpretation, public relations, and fundraising. Photo points must be chosen with care because they may no longer exist after restoration. For example, the area may have been cut, filled, or otherwise completely regraded. Permanent markers can be used in conjunction with global positioning system (GPS) units for locating photo-point locations within the altered project area.Data management should follow formats and guidelines established by the NPS Servicewide Inventory and Monitoring program.

Step 7. Finalize the Project Plan and Funding Requests

Based on the specific restoration tasks developed in Step 6, the project plan is finalized and project costs developed. A complete project plan consists of the statement of the problem; descriptions of the technical approach, methods, and tasks; identification of key park personnel and qualifications; a list of equipment and personnel needs, costs, and schedule; and expected results or outcomes.When details are finalized, additional compliance or consultations may be necessary (e.g., Clean Water Act § 404 review, and National Historic Preservation Act § 106 and Endangered Species Act § 7 consultations).

Cost development. Cost estimates for each task are needed for soliciting project funding and contracting. Cost estimates are based on the list of discrete tasks developed in Step 6, above. As necessary for each task, material purchase costs, transportation costs, and the time required/cost per hour for labor and equipment should be accounted for. For bookkeeping purposes, it may be useful to tally all tasks and estimated costs using a spreadsheet. The maintenance divisions of some parks are able to estimate costs for heavy-equipment work. Otherwise, a restoration specialist, geologist, hydrologist, revegetation specialist, or the Geologic and Water Resources divisions may be consulted. In addition, certain funding sources may require specific cost-estimating protocols and formats. For example, NPS line-item construction funds (>$500,000 projects) require a standard A, B, or C level cost-estimate format.

If possible, the cost structures of recently-issued heavy equipment contracts or restoration contracts in or around the park should be analyzed to determine the average local cost for different types of tasks (e.g., cost of excavation and fill per cubic yard, revegetation per acre, and road removal per acre). This information can be used to roughly estimate the cost of a restoration project. Funding application. Sources of funding in and outside NPS are numerous. The Associate Directorate for Natural Resource Stewardship and Science coordinates funding calls for certain fund sources and can refer parks to outside sources of funding. Projects costing more than $500,000 are eligible for construction funding. Such projects must be submitted in response to calls for construction projects and are selected through the Choosing by Advantages process, using regional and national panels. For all fund sources, restoration projects should be reflected in the Project Management Information System. In most cases, the project-funding proposal should include a summary of the restoration tasks described in Step 6. As appropriate, specific plans for research, data management, analysis, quality control or assurance, and interpretation to the public may be included in the funding proposal.

Step 8. Implement and Oversee the Project

Although the park is responsible for a restoration project, the restoration may be overseen by contractors; central office staff, such as those at the Natural Resources Program Center, the region, or the Denver Service Center; restoration nonprofit organizations; or a combination of the above.

Project supervisor. The work plan for any restoration project should identify a project supervisor, who is the primary person responsible for planning, designing, and implementing the work. The project supervisor ensures that materials are available, outside experts are consulted as necessary, and appropriate equipment is used; schedules crews; leases equipment; coordinates fueling, servicing, and mobilization; coordinates equipment operations; and ensures the availability of administrative support. Regardless of how the project is implemented (e.g., contract, volunteers, etc.), the project supervisor should constantly monitor the on-the-ground restoration, particularly all earthmoving. The information gained by observing the excavations is also invaluable in later stages of the project, including reporting and monitoring. Contracting. Contracting should allow for flexibility during the project. In most projects, the restoration plan will change as original surfaces or stream channel components are uncovered or other conditions change. Contracts should include:

• a clear and concise description of the site and the intent for the project;a description of each task (typically, the bid item), including quantities and technical specifications; and
• technical drawings of the site and specific bid items such as plan maps and cross-sectional views of existing and proposed grades.

Method of payment for each bid item can vary. Payments based on excavated and placed volumes provide incentive to the contractor to do the work efficiently. Payments based on actual hours worked are most appropriate if the quantification of volumes is difficult or extremely time consuming or design work must be done as the restoration progresses. Such payment is particularly appropriate if the contractor and operators can be trusted not to take advantage of hourly pay. Lump sum payments are discouraged because they may result in short-changing the specifications or restoration needs and in problems when changes in design require additional work.

Selecting contractors. Contracts may base selection criteria on bid price, demonstrable experience in restoration, unique capabilities by a few contractors, or a combination of all three. Experienced restoration contractors and equipment operators can provide invaluable feedback on approaches to earthwork.

Step 9. Reporting Activities and Results

Details about the restoration and recovery should be recorded and archived to provide information about the techniques, costs, successes, and failures, and to assist in designing future restoration projects. The details to be reported are the reason, time, and location of tasks; materials and equipment and the associated costs; the labor and equipment time for each task; conditions during completion of each task; monitoring results; additional maintenance (if needed); and the rate of recovery.

Special restoration situations

In addition to following the general steps described above, restoration activities in the special situations described below often require additional expertise and considerations.1. Restoration in wilderness Disturbed lands in NPS wilderness areas detract from the wilderness experience and can cause severe impairment of resources. Abandoned or rarely used roads in wilderness seldom receive adequate maintenance, due in part to a general reluctance to use motorized equipment in wilderness. The lack of appropriate maintenance or restoration often leads to severe erosion and overall degradation of natural systems. Before planning and implementing restoration in an NPS wilderness, the park’s wilderness management plan should be reviewed. The minimum requirement decision tree, described in DO 41 Wilderness Preservation and Management, should be used to decide whether a proposed wilderness restoration is necessary. If it is, the restoration must be done with the appropriate methods. Areas that were originally disturbed by pick and shovel may be restored with a pick and shovel. Likewise, areas that were originally disturbed by heavy equipment may need to be restored with heavy equipment to achieve natural system forms and functions. An inadequate procedure or tool often causes incomplete or delayed restoration and continued damage to the resources.

Section 1133(c) of the Wilderness Act provides as follows:

[E]xcept as necessary to meet minimum requirements for the administration of the area for the purpose of this chapter (including measures required in emergencies involving the health and safety of persons within the area), there shall be no temporary road, no use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment or motorboats, no landing of aircraft, no other form of mechanical transport, and no structure or installation within any such area. (Italics added for emphasis.)

This means that the Wilderness Act expressly allows the NPS to use motorized equipment when necessary, including for restoration of disturbed lands in a wilderness area.

2. Plugging abandoned oil, gas, geothermal, and water wells

When restoring properties that include oil, gas, geothermal, or domestic and agricultural water supply wells, the first step is to plug the well. The wellbore (the drilled hole) of a well allows fluids to move from zone to zone underground or to be transported to the surface. Plugging the well protects the zones of usable water from pollution and prevents the escape of oil, gas, or other fluids to the surface or to other subsurface zones. Plugging and abandonment of water wells should be coordinated with the Water Resources Division. Before plugging water wells, the division should be contacted to determine whether the well should be maintained for monitoring water levels or water quality. In most cases, a state agency has regulations and guidelines for the abandonment and plugging of water wells.The Geologic Resources Division recommends that plugging of oil and gas and geothermal wells meet the minimum standards of the Department of Interior's Onshore Oil and Gas Order Number 2, Section III. G., Drilling Abandonment.

Well plugging tasks. Cement plugs are set to:

• isolate all formations containing oil, gas, and geothermal resources and other prospectively valuable minerals,isolate all formations bearing usable-quality water,isolate the surface casing from open holes below the casing shoe, and
• seal the well at the surface.

Well plugging design and cost estimation. For any well that becomes part of a restoration plan, the assistance of a petroleum engineer should be obtained for well evaluations, plugging designs, and the preparation of cost estimates. Well plugging should be coordinated with the Geologic Resources Division and the Water Resources Division. Hazardous wastes. Most historical petroleum or geothermal operations have associated earthen pits that serve as dumping grounds for contaminated wastes from operations. The Geologic Resources Division can be consulted to identify the presence of pits, design a sampling program for the pits, and recommend appropriate mitigation.

3. Reducing Abandoned Mine Hazards

The National Park Service Abandoned Mine Land (AML) Program has identified more than 3,000 mine sites in the National Park System, which include 11,000 underground openings or hazardous features and which cover approximately 30,000 acres in 140 parks. Planning and implementing mine closures generally follow the steps outlined in the General Restoration Steps described in this section. However, the consultation process required by Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act and its regulations at 36 CFR Part 800 is particularly important for abandoned mine closures, because certain abandoned mines may be "historic properties."The Section 106 consultation process is discussed above in Step 5 of General Restoration. After completing the consultation, parks should generally proceed with the mine closure in order to reduce safety hazards or with completely restoring a mine area to a pristine condition. Where appropriate and consistent with natural resource protection and safety concerns, the park should also mitigate the damages to historic properties caused by the mine closure or restoration. Mitigation may include protection of certain historic features, documentation, curation, research, interpretation, education, recordation, or other courses of action. Definitions specific to mines Adit: A horizontal or nearly horizontal passage mined from the surface for developing an underground mine. Collar: The opening at the top of a shaft, often reinforced with concrete or timber. Glory hole: The area where a stope breaks through to the surface. Typically, the edges of a glory hole are undermined and susceptible to collapse. Headframe: A wooden or steel structure constructed over a mineshaft to facilitate hoisting in and out of an underground mine. Highwall: The cliff-like feature in a surface mine left when material has been removed from a hillside. Incline: A steeply inclined passage mined upward or downward from the surface for developing an underground mine. Typically one refers to an incline as steeper than an adit, which can easily be walked, but less steep than a shaft, which would require ropes or some sort of hoisting mechanism to access.Ore, orebody: A mineral deposit that can be mined at a profit under existing market conditions. Portal: The entry to an adit or a tunnel. Shaft: A vertical or near vertical passage mined from the surface for developing an underground mine. Stope: A broad, open, underground mine feature where a large mass of ore has been removed from the area. With so much rock removed from these areas, stopes are typically some of the more hazardous areas underground due to inadequate support, leading to potential rock fall and collapse. Tailings: Waste material from a mill; the remnant ground rock material left after the desired commodity has been removed from an ore. Typically, this material is homogenous and fine-grained. Tunnel: A horizontal or nearly horizontal passage mined from the surface through a hill or mountain to the surface on the other side. Waste rock, spoils, dump: Barren or sub-grade rock that was mined to gain access to the orebody. In an open pit, waste material that must be stripped to access a buried orebody is called overburden. Because this material is not sent to the mill, it is typically discarded near the mine entrance and varies from coarse to fine-grained. Hazards related to surface mining Mine workings at the surface may have dangerous highwalls, cuts, or fills that present safety hazards to visitors and park staff. Such hazards may involve persons falling off these steep slopes, or debris falling from the slope endangering people downhill. Other surface hazards at mines include unstable structures, such as buildings, and loading facilities. The preferred method of minimizing hazards from highwalls, cuts, or fills is reducing the slope to a gradient where falls would not be injurious or where slope materials are stable. Determination of the gradient's stability may require the assistance of an engineering geologist, geomorphologist, or engineer with experience in rock mechanics or slope stability analysis.The slope gradients may be reduced by (1) backfilling (placing material at the base of the slope); (2) cutting (pushing material from the top to the bottom of the slope); or (3) benching (creating a series of steps across the slope). Combinations of these techniques may be appropriate if warranted by site conditions or availability of materials. Blasting or heavy equipment are often appropriate for reducing highwalls and slopes. A reclamation geologist or specialist may be consulted to select suitable equipment and to estimate costs.When planning slope reduction work, the effects of other surface processes, such as fluvial processes, on the reconfigured slopes and on surrounding undisturbed areas must be considered. For example, appropriately designed channels or diversions may be required to ensure that surface erosion does not hinder the post-work recovery of the site. Determination of potential erosion and design of stable channels may require the assistance of a geomorphologist or hydrologist with experience in channel sizing and design. Other measures to reduce surface hazards include fencing and signing. However, these are temporary stopgaps. They may be initially less expensive but require relatively frequent maintenance, are prone to vandalism, and do not reduce the hazard. Unless they are significant and unique historic properties, buildings and other structures should be removed. Safety evaluations and procedures for stabilization or demolition are best conducted with the assistance of structural or civil engineers, and may also require a historical architect. Hazards related to underground mining Hazards at underground mines may involve persons falling into shafts; cave-ins from unstable rock or rotten timbers; deadly gases, oxygen deficiency, or radioactive emissions; explosives; and unstable aboveground (e.g., headframes and buildings) and underground structures (e.g., ladders). Collapse and subsidence are significant hazards of underground mine features such as rooms (found in coal mines), stopes, and glory holes. Such hazards especially exist in relatively shallow workings.Park staff may complete the initial site inventories but should not enter underground mines unless qualified by appropriate training. Detailed site inspections, underground inspections, and recommended closures require the assistance of geologists or mining engineers with experience in underground mine safety, mine closure, and mitigation techniques. Underground inspection and closure work are usually coordinated with specialists from the Geologic Resources Division. Selection of the most appropriate closure option for underground mines depends on two important considerations. First, the consultation process required by Section 106 of the NHPA and its regulations at 36 CFR Part 800 needs to be completed. Many underground closures have no effects or have a non-adverse effect on historic properties. Second, the importance of habitat that the mine offers to wildlife in the area must be determined, particularly to federally listed or state-listed threatened and endangered wildlife species such as bats and desert tortoises. Guidance for closing specific underground features is presented below.

Shafts and inclines: Shafts and inclines can be closed in several different ways. In the absence of significant historic properties or critical habitat, permanent closures that return the land to a relatively pristine condition are preferred. If access for heavy equipment is good and adequate mine waste is available onsite, shafts should be backfilled to the approximate original contour or slightly above to allow future settling.

In sensitive or wilderness areas where heavy equipment may not be acceptable (see wilderness subsection above for discussion of appropriate restoration tools in wilderness), a variety of methods can be used for closing shafts. Prison laborers have been used to backfill shallow shafts by hand. For deeper shafts where hand-backfill would be impractical, polyurethane foam (PUF) plugs are formed near the collar of the shaft and the remainder of the shaft is backfilled with waste rock from the site. PUF plugs are formed from two liquid components that react when they are combined, expanding to 30 times their original volume and turning into a rigid plug within minutes. The materials can be packed into a site or dropped by helicopter without adverse effects on the site or its access. When properly designed and installed, PUF closures can support great loads such as vehicles and heavy equipment driving over the reclaimed surfaces. Steel grates and nets of braided steel cable have also been made onsite. Such closures are susceptible to vandalism but may be appropriate in some sites. Where shafts provide significant habitat for bats, steel grates are designed to keep people out but allow bats access and egress. With careful planning, most of these closures are compatible with cultural values in historic mine sites. Adits and tunnels: Adits and tunnels are closed by a variety of techniques depending on site conditions and available material. Backfills, bulkheads, steel gates, cable nets, and bat gates are used to close adits. As much of the portal as possible should be backfilled when equipment access, material availability, and habitat are not constraints. Bulkheads can be constructed of PUF, native stone, and mortar or of dry-stacked native stone, preferably in conjunction with backfilling to the portal.

Steel gates and cable nets are less resistant to vandalism than bulkheads. Bat gates, although not impervious to vandalism, are designed of very heavy or vandal-resistant steel and effectively deter access while protecting critical habitat for bats and other species such as desert tortoises.

Stopes: Where large stopes have been mined near the surface or where they have breached the surface to form a glory hole, some type of support should be provided. Good options are PUF and various types of grout.

Disturbed Land Restoration Table of Contents | RM#77 Table of Contents